| abstract |
Methods and strategies for introducing genetic safeguards into microorganisms, genetically modified organisms (GMO) including the safeguards, and methods of use thereof are provided. The genetic safeguards generally impart a low escape frequency, are robust, and are modular. Safeguards with low escape frequency prevent the rise of mutants escaping defined media and limit growth in the wild. Robust safeguards retain wild-type levels of fitness while also maintaining containment in diverse growth conditions. |